Psychological

• Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are twice as likely as children without ADHD to develop early drug use (including tobacco) [Odds Ratio 2:1] (Chilcoat and Breslau, 1999).
   
• Adolescents with depressive and anxiety symptoms showed higher risk for smoking initiation than adolescents with no symptoms (Patton et al., 1998).
   
• Adolescents who smoke report more symptoms of depression than adolescents who do not smoke (Kandel and Davies, 1982).
  

• Adolescents who express rebelliousness, impulsivity, and the "tendency to live faster and more intensely" are at increased risk for using tobacco (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; United States Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 1989).
  
  
• Adolescents who have previously used alcohol and other substances are more likely to use tobacco (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; USDHHS, 1989).

• Male students (37.6%) are significantly more likely to use tobacco than female students (27.9%) (CDC, 1999).
  
  
• Cigarette advertisements that target women emphasize the weight-reducing properties of cigarettes by associating brand names with slenderness (Moolchan, Ernst, and Henningfield, 2000).
  
  
• White and Hispanic students (38.6% and 32.7%, respectively) are significantly more likely to use tobacco than black students (19.7%) (CDC, 1999).
  
  
• Adolescents whose first sexual intercourse is at a young age are at increase risk of tobacco use (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; USDHHS, 1989).
  
  
• In molecular genetic studies, differences found in the dopamine receptor genes and liver enzymes (where nicotine is primarily metabolized) suggest differences in nicotine dependence and its consequences (Moolchan, Ernst, and Henningfield, 2000; Spitz et al., 1998; Pianezza et al., 1998).
  

• Adolescents from single parent homes, or where there are low levels of parental involvement, are at increased risk for smoking (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; USDHHS, 1989).
  
  
• Adolescents from poor families smoke more than youth from wealthier families (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; USDHHS, 1989).
  
  
• Adolescents whose friends and parents use tobacco are at increased risk of using tobacco themselves (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; USDHHS, 1989).
  
  
• Adolescents who drop out of high school, don't plan to go to college, or are involved in breaking rules in school are at higher risk of using tobacco (Fisher, Jr., Lichtenstein, & Haire-Joshu, 1993; USDHHS, 1989).
  
  
• Although cigarette price increases have deterred adolescent access to tobacco products, the overall impact of regulatory efforts implemented by the FDA in 1997 to reduce adolescents' access to cigarettes remains undetermined (Moolchan, Ernst, and Henningfield, 2000).